We thank Peter Steinbach for providing the codebase for the equivariant UNet, which we used as a backbone for our network. The training code is available at https://github.com/Helmholtz-AI-Matter/bremsstrahlung_denoising.

Below we share a brief description of our method:

1. Introduction

   Experimental data from cameras in ultra-high intensity laser interaction experiments very often con-
   tains not only the desired signal, but also a large amount of traces of high-energy photons created
   via the bremsstrahlung process during the interaction. For example, the Jungfrau camera detecting
   small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) signal in a combined XFEL + optical laser (OL) experiment at
   the European XFEL laboratory still contains lot of bremsstrahlung background, even though strong
   experimental effort (adding a mirror to reflect the signal, and a massive lead wall to block direct view)
   was taken to reduce those (Šmı́d et al., 2020). Especially in the SAXS case, the signal is gradually
   becoming weaker with increasing scattering angle. Therefore, the experimentally observed signal-to-
   noise ratio determines the limit of the scattering angles for which the signal can be extracted, limiting
   the physics that can be observed.
   As the noise is produced by the high-energy photons, whose origin is very different from the signal
   photons, the signal and noise are additive. The currently used Jungfrau camera has a resolution of
   1024 × 512 pixels, pixel size of 75 μm, and the read values are calibrated to deposited keV per pixel.

2. Methods
   The process of removing the noise from the data was split into three steps. First, the learning dataset
   was curated and cut into patches of 128 × 128 pixels. Second, a neural network was created an trained
   on those data. Splitting the data into the patches actually enables the whole process, because no
   ‘noise-only’ data are measured in the detector areas where signal typically is. In the third step, an
   image with actual data is split into the patches, those are processed by the neural network, and merged
   together to produce the final signal and noise prediction.
   
   Data preparation
   The experimental data used for training the neural network came from two sets:
   
   • X-ray only shots: Those data are collected when only the XFEL beam was used, i.e. they do
   contain an example of the useful signal, but no bremsstrahlung background at all.
   • Full shots: Those data are from the real physics shots, contain both the XFEL and OL beams,
   therefore have a mixture of signal and noise.
   
   In order to train the neural network in a supervised manner, we need to provide two sets of data: the
   signal and the noise patches. The signal patches are created from the x-ray only data like this: From
   each image, a set of randomly positioned and randomly oriented patches is extracted. The randomness
   in rotation is important, as those training x-ray data do have significant dominant directions, which
   are expected to change in the real full shots data. Next, the patches are checked and only those
   which have integrated intensity above a given threshold are used, to prevent close-to-empty patches
   to be used for the training. In the last step, the amplitude of the patches is randomized, to keep the
   algorithm more general. Note that the dynamic range of the detector as well as the signal is large,
   i.e. above approximately four orders of magnitude.
   The noise patches are created from the full shots data. To avoid the regions with signal to be used,
   those regions are masked out. The masking is performed automatically by using a corresponding x-ray
   only image. Then, patches of given size are randomly selected from the remaining data. Note that
   neither rotation nor changes of amplitude are applied, as both can contain signatures of the structure
   of bremsstrahlung, which could simplify the task for the neural network.
   
   Neural network
   In the modelling approach we followed, noise was assumed to be additive, i.e. a noisy input signal xin
   can be decomposed into noise and clean signal components n and s, respectively via the relationship
   xin = n + s.
   The removal of the bremsstrahlung background n was achieved with the help of a convolutional
   neural network, which estimated both the noise n̂ to be subtracted from the input and the denoised
   image ŝ itself. More specifically, a UNet architecture (Ronneberger et al., 2015) was adopted with
   four encoder blocks using 32, 64, 128 and 256 feature maps. Each encoder block consisted of two
   separate convolutional layers and ReLU nonlinearities. No batch normalization was employed. The
   corresponding decoder network matched the number of filters. The decoder output produced latent
   feature maps l with 16 channels.
   In preliminary experiments, we have found an equivariant version of the UNet, implemented us-
   ing the ‘escnn’ library (https://github.com/QUVA-Lab/escnn) (Cesa et al., 2022), to show favorable
   performance compared to the original version. It consisted of 5.88 million trainable parameters and
   implemented operations to make the network equivariant to input transformations under discrete ro-
   tations with angles corresponding to multiples of 90 degrees.
   The input to the neural network consisted of image patches of shape 128 × 128. The training data
   comprised of 1754 signal patches and another set of 4711 noise patches.
   During network training, we randomly sampled a new noise patch each time a clean signal patch
   was accessed, as a means of data augmentation and to avoid overfitting. The pixelwise addition of
   both patches resulted in a synthetic noisy patch which was used as model input. Both summands
   were treated as labels during model training. Image intensity normalization on the raw pixel values
   was performed as follows: lower and upper bounds for z-score normalization were computed as the 1
   and 99.95 percentiles of the noisy patch. The lower bound was subtracted from the noisy patch and
   the result was divided by the difference between upper and lower bound. Subsequently, the result was
   clipped to the unit range, i.e. values below zero were set to zero and values above one were reduced to
   one. The same normalization and clipping strategy using the bounds obtained from the noisy patch
   were subsequently applied on the signal and the noise patch, respectively.
   From the latent representation of the equivariant UNet, pixelwise noise was estimated by further
   applying a convolutional layer on the latent feature map, using a kernel size of three, with stride and
   padding of one to retain the spatial dimensionality. A ReLU activation was applied, as the noise
   contribution was known to be non-negative. The estimated noise ŝ was then subtracted from the
   input. To enforce non-negativity also of the estimated signal, again, a ReLU nonlineariy was applied.
   In total, the procedure worked as follows:
   l = eqUNet(xin ),
   n̂ = ReLU (conv(l)) ,
   ŝ = ReLU (xin − n̂) .
   The network was implemented using the ‘PyTorch’ library (version 1.12.1) for the Python pro-
   gramming language (version 3.10.4). It was trained for 400 epochs with a batch size of 16 on a single
   NVIDIA A100 GPU using the AdamW optimizer with a learning rate of 10−4 and no weight decay. For
   both estimated components n̂ and ŝ, the mean absolute error loss was applied. Both loss components
   were added to obtain the loss function the model was trained on.
   
   Application
   Once the model was trained, the removal of the bremsstrahlung background of full-sized experimental
   imaging data was performed by applying the model on image patches, followed by a recombination
   of the patch predictions to obtain full-sized model predictions. A simple sliding-window approach,
   i.e. a regular splitting of image data into non-overlapping patches and consequent combination would
   produce unwanted effects on the borders between patches, therefore a more complex method was
   developed.
   Each image is split into a grid of patches four times, with the following initial pixel offsets: [0,0],
   [96,32], [32,96], [64,64]. Normalization of the patches is performed in the same way as described for the training procedure, before being processed by the network. The obtained predictions for each
   patch are then rescaled to the original data range by undoing the normalization (i.e. by multiplying
   the output with the difference between upper and lower bound followed by an addition of the lower
   bound).
   In the last step, the four predictions produced for the four offsets are combined into a final result.
   Each pixel of the final image is calculated as a weighted mean of those four predictions. The weights
   for the mean are calculated as
   wi = 1 / ((|pi−m|/2) + 2)
   where wi is the weight of i−th prediction pi , and m is the mean of all predictions for a given pixel.
   This approach effectively eliminates the outliers, which are sometimes produced close to the edges of
   the patches.
    
3. References

          [1] Cesa, G., Lang, L., & Weiler, M. (2022). A program to build e(n)-equivariant steerable CNNs. International Conference on Learning Representations. https: / /openreview.net/forum?id=WE4qe9xlnQw

          [2] Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., & Brox, T. (2015). U-net: Convolutional networks for biomedical image segmentation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 9351, 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24574-4 28

          [3] Šmı́d, M., Baehtz, C., Pelka, A., Laso Garcı́a, A., Göde, S., Grenzer, J., Kluge, T., Konopkova, Z., Makita, M., Prencipe, I., Preston, T. R., Rödel, M., & Cowan, T. E. (2020). Mirror to measure small angle x-ray scattering signal in high energy density experiments. Review of Scientific Instruments, 91 (12), 123501. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0021691

This is the second release of the dataset, prepared following feedback from the JOSS review process.

GeoPathSim operates on spatially resolved, classified two-dimensional raster data, such as SEM-based automated mineralogy maps or comparable categorical images of mineral or material classes. The preprocessing workflow converts classified images into integer rasters, harmonizes mineral classes, calculates bulk and mask-area mineral compositions in volume and weight fractions, and can derive mineral-neighbour statistics from the original structure.

Two complementary stochastic simulation approaches are implemented. For visible fractures or other explicitly traceable pathways, the one-dimensional workflow extracts mineral sequences, estimates Markov transition probabilities, and generates stochastic pathway realizations. For samples without clearly traceable pathways or when complete spatial mineral fields are required, the two-dimensional workflow estimates empirical indicator variograms, fits Matérn models, and generates hierarchical multi-Gaussian mineral-field realizations.

Additional workflows support the aggregation of results from multiple 1D and 2D simulations, mineral-neighbour analysis, categorical smoothing, bulk-versus-pathway comparison, mineral highlighting, image cropping, and representative-volume-element size analysis. GeoPathSim records explicit random seeds, configurations, manifests, logs, and structured numerical outputs to facilitate reproducible analyses. The software is designed to run on conventional desktop or laptop computers and does not require dedicated high-performance computing infrastructure.

In addition to the GeoPathSim source code, this publication contains two example datasets that demonstrate the application of the one-dimensional and two-dimensional workflows. For each example, the corresponding configuration files used to control preprocessing, analysis, simulation, and plotting are provided together with the resulting data outputs. These examples document the complete processing chain from classified mineral input data to derived mineral statistics and stochastic realizations and are intended to facilitate reproducibility, verification of the software workflow, and adaptation of GeoPathSim to other classified mineral datasets.

This study examines the three-dimensional structure and phase distribution of secondary Waelz slag produced by pyrometallurgical valorisation. X-ray computed tomography (XCT) served as the primary non-destructive characterisation method to reconstruct and quantify the slag's internal structure, focusing on the distribution, morphology, and size of gas-filled pores and metallic inclusions. XCT analysis was supplemented by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and elemental and mineralogical characterisation via SEM- based Automated minerology to correlate three-dimensional features with the material's chemical and phase composition.

XCT analysis identified a heterogeneous internal structure with pores and metallic inclusions exhibiting diverse sizes, morphologies, and spatial distributions. The results indicate systematic variations in porosity and metal fraction across the solidified slag.

The combined dataset shows that integrating XCT with XRD, XRF, and SEM-based Automated minerology links three-dimensional morphology, chemistry, and mineralogy in complex slag–metal systems. Correlation of XRD with SEM-based Automated minerology led to the proper identification of mineral phases present in the complex slag-metal system.

Although viscosity and surface tension can be simulated for experimental methods, the analytical workflow developed in this study provides a foundation for future research to quantify liquid slag viscosity and surface tension using XCT analysis. The technique-coupled correlative approach shows the necessity of a correlative workflow in an analysis.

X-ray computed tomography (XCT) datasets

Zip file with raw and reconstructed datasets from XCT for each of the subsamples from SWS_Bulk sample. For each scan, the folder is named as Sample_X, for example, Sample 1, and contains the raw data (“WS_S1_scan_00xxxx.tif), the “acquisition settings XRE.txt” file with the XCT scan information and a folder named “recon_WS_S1”, which refers to data reconstructed using Panthera software, a software based on filtered back projection algorithm. The reconstructed data corresponds to xy slices in .tif format.

Micro X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (µXRF) datasets

“SWS XRF data” folder: excel file

Contains modal composition of the Secondary Waelz slag and the file is in the .xlsx format.

SEM-based Automated Mineralogy (MLA)

“SEM_Automated Mineralogy” folder contains BSE images and elemental maps of the MLA datasets for the sample SWS_S4 are .bmp or .png files. Bruker spectra are saved as .spx. and the .xlsx file contain the Measurement parameters, Modal minerology and Mineral reference.

MLA measurement parameters:

Voltage: 25 kV

Spot size: 4.46

Specimen current: 10 nA

Working distance: 13 mm

Pixel Resolution: 1000

Horizontal field width: 1000 microns

BSE calibration (Cu): 244 BSE

X ray mapping BSE range: 30-255 BSE

MLA Measurement mode: GXMAP

Step size: 10 microns

Min feature size: ca.2 microns

Dwell time: 16 microsec

X ray acquisition time: 6 ms

MLA Measurement mode: XMOD

Step size: 25 microns

Dwell time: 8 microsec

X ray acquisition time: 8 ms

Avg Number X ray points: 533785

X ray Diffraction (XRD)

“SWS_XRD data” folder contains the XY file from the measurement, a figure of the XRD intensity plot, the weight percent quantification of the phases and the “SWS_Profex_BGMN_refined_XRD” folder, it contains the refined structural files of phases, BGMN refinement parameter file and XRD device measurement file.

XRD Measurement parameter

Tube. Cobalt X ray tube

Voltage. 35 kV

Current: 35 mA

Filter: Iron- beta filter

Theta – range: 5 to 80

Step size_ 0.0131 degrees

Sample area: 15 X 12 mm

Duration: 153 min

Reference database: ICDD PDF-5+ 2026

The synthesis data is in a private repository at the University of Leipzig, please contact: christoph.hadlich@uni-leipzig.de

The synthesis data is stored in a private repository at the University of Leipzig, please contact: christoph.hadlich@uni-leipzig.de

The synthesis data is stored in the Bcube repository, please contact: stefan.diez@tu-dresden.de

- measurement of opMEMS bridge relative deflection, 

- effect of annealing, produced by the large currents used on the experiment, on resistance of PtC, Co and WC nanowires,

- relative resistance change versus strain of FEBID (focused electron beam induced deposition) nanowires for three tested materials.