Publications Repository - Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf

The possibilities to evaluate radioactive contaminated sites with knowledge-based methods are discussed on the basis of a knowledge-based evaluation system for non-radioactive sites. The discussion treats methodical and programming aspects.

A computer system is presented which will be an effective support for the Saxonian government offices responsible for the evaluation of contaminated sites and the decision concernig the kind of remediation. This system XUMA (German synonym for expert system on environmental hazards of contaminated sites) includes a knowledge base with the principal methods for handling contaminated sites. The main features of XUMA are:

Evaluation of contaminated sites,
Creation of analysis plans,
Assessment of contaminated sites,
Knowledge acquisition tool and
Explanation capability.
Furthermore XUMA's embedding into environmental IT-systems in Saxony is described.

A concept for the use of decision-analysis in planning local energy distribution systems is introduced. The concept is based on the coupling of multiple independent modules, what enables the finding of a solution optimum in cost and environmental compatibility by variation of boundary conditions and input parameters. The first modul is presented.

A knowlegde-based strategy for the evaluation of risks produced by contaminated sites is presented, which also gives a ranking for the temporal sequence of remediation. This strategy supports the responsible government offices. It is based on the Saxonian evaluation method for contaminated sites and is implemented in the computer programs XUMA and GEFA.

The influence of an external magnetic field on LMMHD two-phase flows in vertical rectangular ducts has been examined. The goal of the work is the construction of models being able to predict the average behaviour of the flow as well as being relatively easy to survey and to handle. Results regarding the slip ratio obtained from a bubbly flow model are compared with experimental data got from measurements at the mercury-air facility. In the case of an applied magnetic field discrepancies between model and experiment are obtained giving an indication of the imperfection of the present state of the model. The crucial point is the validation of the semiempirical closure laws involved in the LMMHD tow-phase flow models. In the present state of the experiments the influence of the void fraction on the apparent electrical conductivity of the two-phase flow has been investigated. The results obtained from the mercury-air facility of LEGI-IMG are located between the relations given by Maxwell and Petric & Lee, respectively.

Neutron embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel is a critical safety-related problem for VVER type reactors. For a better knowledge of this problem an irradiation programme was carried out in the VVER-2 reactor in Rheinsberg from 1984 - 89. With the programme the procedure and methods for the calculation of the transition temperature shift should be examined, the irradiation-induced change of fracture toughness should be determined and the influence of postirradiation annealing had to be investigated. 33 heats of both basic and weld material from low alloyed Cr-Mo-V and Cr-Mo-Ni steels were tested. The neutron fluence amounted to (1.5-79) x 1018 n/cm² (E>1MeV). In the unirradiated state the VVER material shows satisfying properties of strength and toughness and is comparable with the performance of ASTM type steels. The shift of the transition temperature is not always correctly predicted by means of the normally applied trend curves.

The dependence of the mechanical properties on the depth position in unirra- diated state and after irradiation up to neutron fluences of approximately. 5 x 1018 and 70 x 1018 cm-2 (E > 0.5 MeV) is tested on a forging made of VVER 440 reactor pressure vessel steel 15CrMoV. Specimens taken from a sub-surface region shows a higher strength and a lower transition temperature than ones from 1/4 - 3/4 of the wall thickness. Increased irradiation reduces these differences. The testing of specimes from the 1/4 depth position within the surveillance programme, as normally demanded by monitoring rules for nuclear power plants, results in a conservative safety assessment against brittle fracture even in the case of EOL fluence. By taking into account fluence attenuation, the flux effect etc., the toughness increases over the wall thickness from the inside to the outside after a longer operating time of the RPV.

Thin layer studies at the material research goniometer of the ROBL-
CRG beamline (ESRF Grenoble)

F. Eichhorn, W.Matz, F.Prokert, M. Betzl, P. Reichel, N. Schell

Forschungszentrum Rossendorf,
Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research,
P.O.B. 510119, D - 01314 Dresden, Germany

The Forschungszentrum Rossendorf installed a collaborating research
group (CRG) beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
(ESRF) in Grenoble. The main parts of the Rossendorf beamline (ROBL)
are the beam conditioning optics, a radiochemistry end-station for
the study of radioactive materials by X-ray absorption spectroscopy
and a materials research end-station mainly intended for structural
studies of solids and melts by diffractometry and reflectometry.
The synchrotron X-ray beam is monochromatised and focused by a
successive reflection and diffraction at a first mirror, a double-
crystal mono-chromator and a second mirror. The whole possible
energy range extends from 5 to 35 keV with an resolution Delta-E/E = 1E-4 - 1E-5. The beam divergence can be controlled by bending the second
crystal and the second mirror.
A six-circle goniometer is installed for materials research studies.
Two parallel circles (for the sample and the detector) each with
horizontal and vertical axes allow experiments in both scattering
planes. The sample can be adjusted by two additional axes. The
minimum angular step of all circles is 0.0001°. The sample position
can be equipped with an x-y-z slide. Of special interest to study
are structures in thin near-surface regions of solids as this is the
typical modification region for samples treated by ion beam
techniques.
A survey about the experiments done so far will be given. As
examples of thin layer problems studied at this goniometer, in
detail it will be reported on phase transition studies of N
ionimplanted Ti-6Al-4V alloys in the paper of F. Berberich (this
school) and here on ...

After a short review about the state of art of spectrum adjustment for reactor pressure vessel dosimetry and their realization in Rossendorf plans for future developments are described. The most important outstanding problem is the calculation of covariances of the theoretical input spectra.
As example for an advanced spectrum adjustment some preliminary results of a reevaluation of 1984/85 irradiation experiments in Rheinsberg were presented.
Suggestions are made for common projects in the frame of the WGRD, VVER and EWGRD, especially the development and maintenance of a common reactordosimetric database for VVER type reactors and the organization of benchmark exercises for calculations of detector cross sections and spectrum covariances.

A general survey was given about the problems and growing possibilities of the Monte-Carlo method applied to particle transport.
In particular the following items were considered:

• the mathematical foundations of Monte Carlo methods
• analog games
• nonanalog games and the possibility to obtain zero variance
• equation for the variance in the analog and nonanalog case, meaning of impor tance function
• danger of miscalculation connected with nonanalog games
• "Weight Window Method" and analytical investigations to improve this method
• alternative methods to decrease the statistical errors
• possibilities to calculate optimum weights

Information was given about the Rossendorf system of Monte Carlo codes including measures for variance reduction with respect to the calculation of fluences at irradiation points within the Rheinsberg reactor. It was shown that by the used methods it was possible to obtain results with low statistical errors and therefore Monte Carlo methods are well suited for the determination of neutron fluences if applied to that part of the problem, where transport calculations are needed. The sensitivity of the obtained results against the used group sets of neutron data was considerably reduced by improving the calculation of scattering at hydrogen isotope, which is very important for this kind of calculation.

Problems of the calculation of neutron fluences for reactor pressure vessel embrittlement determination were discussed. For the example of the calculation of neutron fluences of irradiated specimens within the Rheinsberg reactor (time period 1984-1988) it was shown, for which parts of the problem Monte Carlo methods can be very well applicated.
Some special measures were discussed, which are used for the own Monte Carlo codes (system TRAMO), especially the improved "Weight Window Method" and a proper calculation of the needed weights. Further the preparation of all needed data to take into account the history for each irradiation period was described and the influence of different neutron group data and the different handling of anisotropy of elastic scattering was considered.

During abnormal core barrel motion of a VVER-440 type reactor significant phase relations and coherences between incore and excore neutron noise signals were observed. For the explanation of the phenomena a numerical algorithm based on the non-linear equations of motion of a double pendulum was developed. In order to confirm the numerical results qualitatively additional experiments at a small set-up modelling the control elements were performed. The typical signal patterns observed at the VVER-440 could be shown to originate from mechanical impacts between the control elements and the neighbouring fuel cassettes.

A set of technetium(V) mixed-ligand complexes was synthesized with different protonation constants pK_a, brought about by substitution. They were characterized regarding their lipophilicity and compared to the corresponding rhenium(V) complexes. Partition coefficients P, determined by reversed phase HPLC and the octanol shake flask method, were higher for the technetium than for the analogous rhenium species. Investigations were performed to assess the influence of the physicochemical molecule parameters on the biological behaviour of these compounds. The state of ionisation of the molecules had a significant influence on brain uptake in vivo. Less uptake was found for compounds with pK_a values around 9.5, which are fully protonated at physiological pH, than for those with pK_a values around 7.5, which are ionised to only about 50% at pH 7.4. transport through cells was studied with an in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) model, based on the human umbilical cord cell line ECV304. The resulting in vitro permeation curves agree with the in vivo results obtained in mice and rats with short incubation times (up to 30 min).

Während der anomalen Kernbehälterbewegung bei einem Reaktor vom Typ WWER-440 wurden signifikante Phasen- und Kohärenzbeziehungen zwischen dem Excore- und dem Incoreneutronenrauschen beobachtet. Für die Erklärung der Phänomene wurde ein numerischer Algorithmus entwickelt, der auf den nichtlinearen Bewegungsgleichungen eines Doppelpendels beruht. Zur qualitativen Verifizierung der numerischen Resultate wurden außerdem Experimente an einem kleinen physischen Modell der Regelelemente durchgeführt. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, daß die am WWER-440 beobachteten typischen Signalmuster von mechanischen Anschlagvorgängen zwischen Regelelementen und benachbarten Brennstoffkassetten herrühren.

In 1985 abnormal core barrel motion had occured at unit 2 of the Greifswald NPP indicated by extremly large neutron noise. Amplitudes of up to 4mm were estimated from the external neutron noise signals.
The coherence and phase relations between excore and incore neutron noise signals exhibited typical features from which it could be concluded that even the control elements were forced to vibrations by the moving core barrel.
To obtain principal understanding about these phenomena and to draw conclusions for the surveillance of the excore and incore neutron signals, experimental and numerical investigations were performed. An experimental set-up was constructed providing all necessary displacement signals via HALL probes. This physical model, being a double pendulum with an annular channel surrounding the lower pendulum, can be operated in a linear mode (small excitation amplitudes) as well as in a non-linear mode (larger amplitudes which cause impacts between channel and lower pendulum).
The numerical simulation algorithm is based on a mechanical system consisting of linear elements (inertia, dampers, springs) and non-linear elements (gaps). In this way impacts between control element and neighbouring fuel cassettes which are strongly non-linear events can be modeled. After simulating the time series, which is possible for any detector position at the control element or at the set-up respectively, transfer functions, coherences, phase relations etc. can be computed.
It could be shown that the typical linear phase shifts between excore and incore neutron noise signals are due to impacts between the control elements and the neighbouring fuel cassettes. The obtained results can be used to establish a sensitive detection procedure for control element vibrations induced by abnormal core barrel motion.

Es wurde ein Ultraschallverfahren zur Rißlängenmessung während des Dreipunktbiegeversuchs entwickelt, das auf der Beugung von Ultraschallwellen an der Rißspitze beruht. Die Information über Rißlänge und Rißfortschritt wird aus der Laufzeit der gebeugten Ultraschallwellen gewonnen. Das vorgestellte Verfahren ist das einzige der bisher bekannten Ultraschallverfahren, das an einer so kleinen Probenform erfolgreich angewendet wurde.

Für die Wohnsiedlung Rossendorf wurde ein Meßsystem zur Erfassung der Wärmeflüsse für Heizung und Warmwaser entworfen, realisiert und erprobt. Zum Einsatz kam ein industrielles Meßsystem mit Prozeßrechner der Firma Johnson Controls. Durch Testmessungen wurde der Nachweis der Funktionsfähigkeit der Anlage erbracht. Als kritisch erwies sich die genaue Bestimmung der Wärme- bzw. Volumenströme.

Re/Tc labelled nucleobases and nucleosides are developed and characterized in connection with cell uptake studies on cultured normal and tumour cells [1,2]. Stable Re and Tc complexes of nucleic acid components have been prepared where uracil derivatives are either involved in a mercaptoacetyl glycine (MAG) SN₃ coordination sphere or are part of "3+1" mixed-ligand complexes. Furthermore a prelabelling method has been successfully used for coupling the nucleic acid components to a performed Re/Tc complex.
Uptake of such complexes into proliferating cultured normal and tumour cells and their crude cytosolic and nuclear fractions, including postincubation effects and the influence of the metabolic state of the cells, has been observed.

Für ein im Bau befindliches konventionelles Heizsystem auf Erdgasbasis wurden technische Varianten einer einzubindenden Solaranlage untersucht. Dabei stand die optimale Nutzung und Verteilung der von der Solaranlage zu liefernden Wärme im Vordergrund. Als ausschlaggebend erwiesen sich die Berücksichtigung unterschiedlicher Temperaturniveaus der verschiedenen untersuchten Abnehmer (Wohngebiet, Schule). Für 2 Varianten erfolgte eine Systemauslegung und eine Abschätzung der zu erwartenden solaren Gewinne.

Im Rahmen der wissenschaftlich-technischen Zusammenarbeit zwischen Deutschland und Rußland und einem Koordinierten Forschungsprogramm der IAEA wird das Bestrahlungsverhalten russischer und westlicher Reaktordruckbehälter(RDB)stähle untersucht. Im unbestrahlten Ausgangszustand weisen die Chargen des Grundwerkstoffes 15Ch2MFA des russischen Druckwassereaktors WWER-440 eine große Streuung in den im Charpy-V Test ermittelten Übergangstemperaturen und Hochlageenergien auf. Eine geringe Streuung in diesen Kennwerten haben die untersuchten Chargen des Grundwerkstoffes 15Ch2NMFA(A) des russischen Druckwasserreaktors WWER-1000. Die ermittelten Übergangstemperaturen liegen niedriger als bei den ASTM RDB-Stählen A533B Cl. 1 und ASTM A508 Cl. 3. Die J-Integralwerte für technische (J0,2)- und physikalische Rißinitiierung der untersuchten RDB-Stähle und der dazugehörigen Schweißgüter wurden mit den Hochlageenergien aus dem Charpy-V Test und den Streckgrenzen des Zugversuches korreliert.

A German/Russian irradiation programme was performed in the high flux irradiation channels of the PWR VVER-2 Rheinsberg from 1984 to 1987. Within the programme Charpy-V-, COD-, 0,5-CT-, X-CT- and 1-CT specimens of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels 15Kh2MFA and 15Kh2NMFA(A) and RPV weld metal 10KhMFT, 10Kh2MFA(U) and 10KhNMA(A) were irradiated. These materials are used in the pressurized water reactor of Russian type VVER-440 and VVER-1000. The irradiation of one series of experiments took one year. In this paper the unirradiated initial state of the material is characterized. The mechanical properties measured at different temperatures include instrumented Charpy-V notch- and quasistatic fracture toughness data. Furthermore the neutronfluence of the specimens were calculated in dependence of the position in the high flux irradiation channels of the PWR VVER-2 Rheinsberg.

Anhand von Beispielen wurden elastische low blow's und deren komplexes akustisches Verhalten an einer ungekerbten hochfesten Stahlprobe unter Ausschluß von plastischer Deformation und Rißbildung diskutiert. Störsignale, die durch verschiedene Prozesse generiert werden, sollen somit besser verstanden und letztlich von Nutzsignal separiert werden. Die Korrelation der gemessenen Störsignale zu charakteristischen Ereignissen, wie Reibungsquellen und mechanischer Kontakt, gelang noch nicht. Deshalb wird eine zusätzliche AE-Instrumentierung von Probe und Widerlager in Betrach gezogen, die bei der Störquelleninterpretation hilfreich sein wird.

A new nodal method HEXNEM2 for hexagonal geometry is described. The method is based on a two-dimensional expansion of the intranodal fluxes. Polynomials up to the second order and exponential functions are used in each group. By this method the singular terms occurring in the transverse integration methods are avoided. Side averaged and corner point values of fluxes and currents are used for the coupling of nodes. A calculation scheme for the outgoing partial currents at the sides and similar expressions for the corners from given incoming values are used in the inner iteration which gives a fast running scheme. The method is tested against 2-dimensional hexagonal benchmark problems for the VVER-type reactors. The results show that the multiplication factor and nodal powers are predicted accurately. A considerable improvement can be shown of the results for the VVER-1000 benchmarks compared with the method developed previously for the code DYN3D and the simpler method HEXNEM1.

The pulsed fast reactor IBR.2, Dubna, is at present the most powerful pulsed neutron source used for condensed matter research. The neutron pulses are generated periodically by reactivity modulation, which is accomplished by a rotating two-reflector system. The neutron physics which has been involved in the development of various reflectors is analysed with respect to the neutron pulse length. Two new reflectors are proposed.

A review on R&D activities of the FZR group in the field of Liquid Metal MHD is given in this lecture. Special attention is paid to sodium related experiences (facility, experimental programme, measuring techniques) being of interest for the Breeder development. In particular, first tests of a contactless gas phase detection system are presented. This system was developed by RWTH Aachen and FZR, and tested for the first time at FZR. It allows a detection of small, even single gas bubbles independent of their acoustic activity.

A review on R&D activities of the FZR group in the field of Liquid Metal MHD is given in this lecture. Particular emphasis is put on the measurements and theoretical results with respect to heat&mass transfer in anisotropic MHD turbelence. Corresponding models, experimental set-ups, and measuring techniques are described. Two-phase flow measurements are presented obtained at the FZR sodium facility. The prospects of cylindrical turbulence promoters are discussed.

Control of melt motions is important for most of the crystal growth technologies in order to improve the crystal quality and the yield. There were several attempts in the past to use steady magnetic fields for a damping of instabilities. Much more possibilities for flow control exist if unsteady magnetic fields are used, preferably in combination with steady fields. This new active melt control is attractive for industrial use. Principal mechanisms of this type of flow control are presented in this lecture, particularly adressed to the needs of the Si-Cz-technology. The research project is developed together with the institute of physics Riga and Wacker Chemitronics Ltd. Burghausen

Up to now there are only few investigations on the microstructural change of VVER-type reactor pressure vessel steels after neutron irradiation. Consequently, the understanding of the mechanism of neutron embrittlement is not physically but only empirically based. Apart from the modern methods of high resolution analytical electron microscopy the small angle scattering with neutrons and X-rays enables experiments to gain information on size, volume fraction and composition or structure of nanometer-scale precipitates as they are typical for irradiation-induced ones. First experiments with these techniques have shown the irradiation-induced microstructural changes significantly differ from the changes which were found in ASTM-type steels. For continuing such investigations a programme of joint Russian-German investigation is suggested.

Irradiation-induced precipitates are the cause for neutron embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel steels. It can be shown that for the VVER-type steel 15Kh2MFA the shift in the ductile-brittle transition temperature depends nearly linearly on the volume fraction of these precipitates.
The nature of the irradiation-induced precipitates has been investigated at the steel 15Kh2MFA. This steel differes from ASTM-type A503 and 533 steels mainly in its content of the carbide forming elements chromium, molybdenum and vanadium.
Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) experiments using the SANS-2 facility at the FRG-1 reactor in Geesthacht (Germany) were employed in the past. SANS gives information about size and volume fraction of the precipitates, but hardly about the chemical composition.
In order to prove and to characterize the nature of the irradiation-induced precipi- tates anomalous small angle X-ray scattering (ASAXS) has been carried out at the JUSIFA facility of Hamburg synchrotron laboratory HASYLAB (Germany) at present. By the method of contrast variation, it is also possible to get information on the chemical composition.
ASAXS experiments with contrast variation at energies near the vanadium-K -absorption-edge reveal the content of vanadium within the irradiation-induced precipitates. The scattering density of the precipitates is lower than the scattering density of the iron matrix. The chemical shift of the vanadium K -absorption-edge shows that vanadium does not precipitate in an elementary state. Assuming, the precipitates are vanadium carbide these results can be explained. The results are in accordance with those of SANS experiments and former positron annihilation spectroscopy experiments.

The overall approach comprises the pure calculation part, the gamma spectrometric analyses of fluence monitors and the comparison of theoretical and experimental results using the spectrum adjustment procedure. Monte Carlo methods were used to perform the transport calculations. By application of special measures of variance reduction the statistical errors could be reduced so much that accurate 3-dimensional Monte Carlo methods could be generally used in reasonable calculation time. The uncertainties of the results due to the use of different group values of neutron cross sections were assessed by testing different group sets. In that way it could be shown that the kind of group data is of minor influence.

Es werden Erfahrungen der auf diesem Gebiet tätigen Mitarbeiter in Rossendorf bei der Berechnung und Messung von Neutronenfluenzen sowie bei der Anwendung der Spektrumsjustierung dargelegt. An Hand dieser Erfahrungen wird auf noch offene Probleme eingegangen, die insbesondere bei neutronendosimetrischen Problemen zum Reaktor WWER-1000 auftreten. Es werden Möglichkeiten zur Bewältigung dieser Probleme diskutiert und auf eigene Vorstellungen eingegangen. Insbesondere wird betont, daß man mit Hilfe moderner Verfahren der Varianzreduktion die genaue 3-dimensionale Monte-Carlo Methode als Standardverfahren für die Transportrechnungen anwenden kann.

The thermalhydraulic behaviour of a PWR during beyond-design-basis accident scenarios is important for the verification and optimisation of accident management measures and code development. Analyses require integral experiments, such as PKL III at Siemens / KWU, which simulates a 1300 MWe KWU-design PWR with scaling factor of 1:145.
The paper presents PKL III results obtained by needle shaped conductivity probes developed in the Forschungszentrum Rossendorf [1]. The probes provided local void fractions and particle frequences within an averaging period of 2s. This time resolution is sufficient to characterize slow transients. A special flow pattern map developed for the probes enabled the calculation of the length of an average bubble. The measured information was used to determine the changing flow regimes.
At first, a secondary side feed-and-bleed procedure was investigated. Two probes were installed in the feed water line close to the steam generators. A depressurization of the secondary side caused flashing of the feed water and discharge of two-phase flow. A comparison of the measured void fraction with the density reading of a radiation densitometer installed next to the probes shows good agreement. The experimentally found flow regimes are also consistent with expected trends from flow regime maps developed by other researchers (e.g. [2]). Both show slug flow at the beginning of the secondary-side depressurization.
In the second experiment, a primary-side feed-and-bleed following steam generator tube rupture, four probes were installed at one location in the vertical part of the pressurizer surge-line, but at different radial positions. Another set of probes was installed in the horizontal pressurizer bleed-line. Two of them were used for time-of-flight measurements providing velocity values directly. Flow regimes such as stratified flow in the horizontal tube or annular flow in the vertical tube were found during the depressurization.

A method for detecting and localizing leaks at complicated three-dimensional topologies by measuring the leak induced structure-borne and airborne sound and by applying pattern recognition procedures is being developed. The sound patterns necessary to train fuzzy logic classifiers and neural networks are generated with simulated leaks at the original structure. As features for characterizing the occurrence and the location of a leak, coherence values between high-frequency microphone signals as well RMS-values of acoustic emission sensors are used. The method is even applicable when localization based on propagation time differences or sound attenuation differences fail. The method is prototypically developed for a soviet-type pressurized VVER-reactor.

The state-of art of ultrasonic two-phase flow measurements is characterised by a number of different approaches commonly based on the identification and characterisation of individual voids (bubbles, plugs etc.) applying the techniques of ultrasonic testing. The recorded individual events are integrated to extract parameters as void fraction or volume flow rates. The main limitation of these methods arises from the complicated structure of two-phase flow at higher void fractions which leads to multiple diffractions of the sound beam. The measurement is therefore limited to low void fractions or a simple flow structure.
The main idea of the present work was to overcome these limitations by means of pattern recognition. An ultrasonic beam crossing the two-phase flow is modulated by the changing structure of the voids passing by and therefore the through-transmission signal must contain information about the parameters of the two-phase flow even if information about individual flow effects cannot be derived. Therefore it was supposed that a pattern recognition algorithm trained with signals obtained at known conditions is able to identify the set of the flow parameters (flow rates, void fraction etc.) in an unknown situation.

The pulsed fast reactor IBR-2, Dubna, is at present the most powerful pulsed neutron source used for condensed matter research. The neutron pulses are generated periodically by reactivity modulation, which is accomplished by a rotating two-reflector system. The neutron physics which has been involved in the development of various reflectors is analysed with respect to the neutron pulse length. Two new reflectors are proposed.

In the Research Center Rossendorf post test calculations of the SPE4 were performed using the thermohydraulic code ATHLET. The SPE-4 experiment was a small break loss of coolant accident in the cold leg with unavailable high pressure injection system. For the prevention of core damage the secondary side bleed and feed was used. The experiment was performed at the Hungarian PMK-2 test facility, modelling the Paks VVER-440 reactor. In the calulations different nodalizations were tested for modelling the hydroaccumulators and the horizontal steam generator. Deviations between calculation and experiment were observed especially in the primary pressure decay and consequently in the behaviour of accumulator injection. It was found, that the prediction of observed core dry out depends on the correct calculation of the low pressure injection setpoint.

Eine Methode zur Erkennung und Ortung von Lecks an Druckanlagen komplizierter 3-dimensionaler Topologie ist entwickelt worden. Sie basiert auf der Merkmalsextraktion aus dem leckinduzierten Körper- und Luftschall und wendet neuronale Netze zur Mustererkennung an. Die zum Anlernen der neuronalen Netze notwendigen Schallmuster werden mit Hilfe von simulierten Lecks an einer Originalstruktur erzeugt. Als Merkmale zur Charakterisierung des Leckortes werden Kohärenzwerte zwischen hochfrequenten Mikrofonsignalen und RMS-Werte von Schallemissionssensoren angewendet. Die Methode ist sogar einsatzfähig, wenn die Leckortung auf der Basis von Laufzeit- oder Dämpfungsdifferenzen versagt. Die Methode wird prototypisch für einen russischen WWER-Druckwasserreaktor entwickelt. Die Anwendung neuronaler Netze ermöglicht eine Adaption der Leckortungsmethode an Druckanlagen unterschiedlicher Topologie.

A reactivity initiated transient caused by entering a plug of water with reduced boron concentration into the core during incorrect loop startup in a VVER-440/W-213 reactor is analyzed . Due to the asymmetric distribution of the boron dilution, significant space-dependent effects are expected. That requires the use of a three-dimensional reactor core model. The analysis was carried out with the help of the code DYN3D/M2 developed for investigations on reactivity initiated accidents in thermal reactors with hexagonal fuel elements. A semi-analytical model adjusted to experimental data on coolant mixing in VVER-440 type reactors is used for the estimation of boron concentration distribution at core inlet. For comparisons, the two limiting cases, ideal mixing and no mixing, are investigated.

The coupling of Re- and ^99mTc-MAG₃ complexes with amines and nucleobases was carried out with good yields using O-(benzotriazol-1-yl-)N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-
uronium-tetrafluoroborate (TBTU), and base in polar aprotic solvents (NMP, DMF, DMSO). The one step reaction followed by simple gel chromatography makes the method well appropriate for preparations at the low no-carrier-added level of technetium-99m.

A series of rhenium "n+1" mixed-ligand, thioether-carbonyl and organometallic complexes of 21-substituted progesterone have been synthesized. The conjugates contain the rhenium metal at several oxidation states, being +5, +3 and +1. The complexes were used in a competitive receptor-binding assay (rat-uterus, 0°C) to determine their binding to the progesterone receptor. The best affinity of 9% (RU 5020=100%) was obtained with a "3+1" mixed-ligand complex, containing a NMe group as the central donor atom in the tridentate ligand part.

Mercaptoacetyl glycine (MAG₁) (1) forms, in the presence of appropriate monodentate ligands, tridentate/monodentate (3+1) coordinated complexes with Tc(V) and Re(V). Exchange of the chlorine by monodentate ligands in [MO(MAG₁)Cl]^- (2) gives access to new mixed-ligand complexes [MO(MAG₁)(XR)] (3) . Some representatives have been prepared and characterized by elemental analysis, ir and uv spectroscopy and EXAFS. Thiobenzoate as monodentate ligand gives the complex (4) that, after debenzoylation, reacts with halogen containing compounds under displacement of the halogen by a [MO(SNO)S] moiety.

Organic derivatives (2) of 6-methyl-8alpha-amino-ergoline 1 and derived complexes of rhenium (3,5) and technetium (4) have been prepared and evaluated with regard to their affinity to the dopamine D₂ receptor. The molecular structure of the rhenium complex 3 was determined. The affinity of the benzoyl derivative 2b is comparable with that of terguride (IC₅₀ values 2.7 for 2b vs. 4.8 nMol), while the affinities of the related Tc and Re complexes are in the range from 54 to 165 nMol.

Structural investigations on rhenium and technetium peptide complexes have been carried out using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS) and capillary electrophoresis. Small cysteine containing peptides with altered amino acid sequences were used as model systems to study the metal complexation behaviour. By means of capillary electrophoresis, complex species existing over the pH range could be identified as well as protonable groups in these complexes. EXAFS measurements in solution delivered information about the complex coordination spheres. The metal complexation modes and complex stoichiometries of directly labelled metal complexes of large biologically active peptides could be elucidated.

Für eine gute Bildqualität bei gleichzeitig möglichst niedriger Strahlenbelastung für den Patienten ist es bei PET-Untersuchungen erforderlich, die Aktivität möglichst genau auf die Spritzen aufzuziehen. Dabei kommt es zu einer kaum vermeidbaren deutlichen Strahlenbelastung der Hände und insbesondere der Finger. Dies ist die Folge der nicht ganz einfachen Handhabung der Spritzen beim Füllen. Es ist fast unmöglich, die gewünschte Dosis - trotz Berechnung - beim ersten Mal genau aufzuziehen. Dadurch ist die Hand immer wieder in unmittelbarer Nähe der Aktivität, was letztlich die hohe Strahlenbelastung der Hand bedingt. Um diese Strahlenbelastung beim Abfüllen zu vermindern, sind neben den bereits bestehenden Strahlenschutzmaßnahmen, wie z. B. der Bleiburg mit Bleiglassichtfenster und dem mit Blei abgeschirmten Aufbewahrungsgefäß für das mit Aktivität gefüllte Vial, weitere hinzugekommen.
So werden bei größeren Mengen benötigter Aktivität (bei mehr als 3 Patienten) zwei Abfüllungen aus der Radiochemie angefordert, wobei die zweite Abfüllung erst dann in das Labor geholt wird, wenn die erste Abfüllung aufgebraucht ist. Weiterhin wird beim Aufziehen der Spritzen mit einer Zange, zum Halten der Spritze, sowie einer Pinzette, zum Halten und Fixieren der Kanüle, gearbeitet. Beide Maßnahmen dienen zur Vergrößerung des Abstandes von der Aktivität. Zur Registrierung der Strahlendosis wurde jeweils ein Fingerring pro Hand, eine Filmdosimeter und ein elektronisches Dosimeter getragen.
Es wird die mit den zusätzlichen Strahlenschutzmaßnahmen erreichte Verminderung der Strahlenbelastung der Hände vorgestellt, sowie die Bedeutung in Beziehung zur maximal zulässigen jährlichen Strahlendosis gewertet.

The synthesis of N-(MAG1)-histamine and the preparation of its Tc and Re complexes are reported. As proven by spectroscopic methods, HPLC investigations and by X-ray structure analysis, N-(MAG1)-histamine forms stable, neutral and square pyramidal 1:1 coordination compounds with MO3*-cores of Tc and Re. The preparation of the isostructural 99mTcO(V)-N-(MAG1)-histamine complex has been achieved with 80-95% radiochemical yield.

Objectives: In the past a series of I-123 labeled N-(dialkylaminoalkyl)benzamides have been successfully applied to image human melanoma metastases. This prompted the development of Tc-99m complexes which should mimic the biological characteristics of these benzamide derivates.
Methods: Four N-(2-diethylaminoethyl)benzamide derivatives have been synthesized comprising the following phenyl substituents for Tc-99m complexation: 4-(Bz-S-Ac-Gly-Gly-NH) 1, 3-(NH2)-4-(Bz-S-Ac-Gly-NH) 2, 3-(Bz-S-Ac-NH)-4-(Bz-S-Ac-NH) 3, and 4-HS 4. The Tc-99m complexes were obtained by treating ligands 1-3 at 100°C for 10 minutes with Tc-99m pertechnetate, tartaric acid and stannous chloride as a reducing agend. Complex 4 was formed accordingly in the presence of N-methyl-3-azapentan-1,5-dithiol at 50°C. Biodistribution time-course studies were performed using C57B1/6 mice with subcutaneous B16 murine melanoma.
Results: The highest melanoma uptake was obtained with complex 1(3.42 and 4.48 %ID/G at 1 and 6 hr pi, respectively). The melanoma affinity decreased in the order 1>>4>2>>3.The melanoma uptake corresponded proportional with the blood values. Thus bioavailability of the Tc-complexes in the blood seemed to control melanoma uptake. A similar dependency was observed with radioiodinated benzamides.
Conclusion: Among the compounds tested so far complex 1 proved to exhibit high melanoma affinity and deserves further investigations as a melanoma seeking radiopharmaceutical.

In the last years contaminated sites have become a relevant problem in the Federal Republic of Germany because there exist a large number of these sites. That's why in Germany more intensive efforts are undertaken in order to start necessary remediations. Basic initial conditions for an effective execution of these works are on the one side a systematic registration of these sites and on the other side the creation of a uniform evaluation capability for the assessment of environmental hazards.

Regarding this background the Research Centre Rossendorf (FZR) together with Nuclear Engineering and Analytics, Inc. Rossendorf apply and modify the computer code system XUMA (German synonym for expert system on environmental hazards of contaminated sites) which is a joint project of the Institute for Applied Information Science of the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre and the State Institute for Environmental Protection of Baden-Württemberg. XUMA is a knowledge based computer system, which shall support the staff of the responsible governmental offices in the uniform evaluation of the hazard potential, the preparation of analysis plans, and the assessment of contaminated sites and mines.

To enable the registration and evaluation of contaminated sites at engineering offices FZR developes an interface program which can be generated automatically from the knowledge base of the expert system XUMA. This interface program can be executed at each IBM-compatible PC without any additional runtime environment.

An extensive irradiation programme was performed in the Rheinsberg VVER-2 reactor from 1984 to 1988. The programm comprised 25 different heats from base or weld metal of VVER-440- and 1000-type reactor pressure vessel steels using specimens of variant geometry (CT, COD, tension, Charpy-V). Mainly, it focused on validating of the safety assessment procedure and on determining of fracture mechanics parameters in their dependence of fluence and thermal annealing.
At present the investigation of the irradiated specimen is still outstanding. In the unirradiated state all VVER-type steels investigated show good toughness and strength properties and are comparable with A 533 class 1 and A 508 class 3 steels. The scattering between the different heats of same materials is partly large and does not correlate with the chemical composition or the heat treatment. The results of irradiated specimens up to now do not always confirm the values which are obtained on the base of the valid safety assessment procedure in a conserva- tive wise. That supports the urgency to extend the data base for irradiated VVER-type pressure vessel steels.

Aluminum carbide precipitates are formed after Al ion implantation with dose 3x10¹⁷ cm^-2 at 500°C into single crystalline 6H SiC. The aluminum carbide (Al₄C₃) precipitates are in epitaxial relation with 6H-SiC matrix, having the following orientation relation, [0001]6H-SiC//[11-20]Al₄C₃ and [11-20]6H-SiC//[11-20]Al₄C₃ , as transmission electron microscopy reveals. The aluminum carbide appears around the maximum of the Al depth distribution. Si precipitates were also detected in the same zone.

In Analogie zum Pilotprojekt für den 5. Block vom KKW Saporoshje - WWER-1000/W-320 - wurde für die beiden WWER-440/W-213 Blöcke vom KKW Rovno eine verbesserte betriebliche Überwachung eingerichtet. Dazu werden dem Vor-Ort-Inspektor am KKW Standort und der Aufsichtsbehörde in Kiew einmal pro Minute 55 aktuelle sicherheitsrelevante Parameter pro Block und 7 standortspezifische Parameter zur Erfassung und Bewertung mittels moderner technischer Mittel on-line zur Verfügung gestellt. Die zur Ausstattung des Arbeitsplatzes des Vor-Ort-Inspektors unbedingt benötigten Ausrüstungen wurden unter Berücksichtigung der aktuellen Anforderungen des KKW Rovno spezifiziert, beschafft und der ukrainischen Seite unentgeltlich überlassen. Bei Funktionstests Ende 1998/Anfang 1999 wurden Datensätze aus dem lokalen Rechnernetz des KKW Rovno fehlerfrei nach Kiew übertragen und auf einem Rechner im Informations- und Krisenzentrum in Form von Tabellen, Grafiken und Schemata dargestellt.

Das vor zwei Jahren im KKW Saporoshje in Betrieb genommene System zur verbesserten betrieblichen Überwachung wurde an die Kiewer Zentrale der ukrainischen Aufsichtsbehörde angeschlossen. Dazu wurden die für den Anschluß und die Ausstattung dieser Zentrale in der ersten Ausbaustufe unbedingt erforderlichen technischen Mittel einvernehmlich spezifiziert, in Deutschland beschafft, im notwendigen Umfang erprobt, in die Ukraine überführt und dem Partner am Einsatzort unentgeltlich überlassen. Bei der Erprobung des Informationstransfers aus dem KKW Saporoshje in die Kiewer Zentrale wurde nachgewiesen, daß die von der ukrainischen Behörde gemietete Standleitung die notwendigen technischen Anforderungen erfüllt. Bei Funktionstests Mitte Januar 1998 wurden On-line-Daten aus dem Saporoger System der verbesserten betrieblichen Überwachung fehlerfrei nach Kiew übertragen.
Ferner sind der ukrainischen Seite zum Anschluß des KKW Rovno an die Kiewer Zentrale die gleichen technischen Mittel zur Verfügung gestellt worden.

The presented work aimed at the experimental determination of rapidly changing void fraction distributions. The main idea was to apply arrays of needle shaped conductivity probes to a transient two-phase flow. The goal was to provide a time resolution in the range of tenth of a second. For a first application, a bubble column was investigated. The transient process was initiated by sudden changes of the flow rate of the injected gas (air). The experimental setup consisted in a vertical cylindrical column with an inner diameter of 0.24 m and a height of 2 m. In the bottom of the column a special injection plate was installed. About 200 steel cannulae served as injection nozzles. The injection nozzles were divided into two groups, which were fed from separate air distribution chambers. Both groups were equally distributed over the cross section of the column. This measure allowed to double or to halve the air flow rate without effecting the diameter of the generated bubbles, when the air supply of one of the distribution chambers is switched on and off. For the purpose of gas fraction measurement, 8 single wire probes were mounted on a movable probe comb. The diameter of the sensitive tip was 0.2 mm. The tran-sient void fraction distribution was measured on elevations of 0.4, 0.8 and 1.2 m. The transient process was initiated repeatedly by opening and closing the magnetic valve of the air supply system. After the changes, the air flow was kept constant for intervals of 10 s. The signals of the 8 void fraction probes were recorded and averaged over periods of 0.2 s for each realisation of the transient process. The data acquisition process was synchronised with the control of the magnetic valve. Afterwards, the obtained void fraction courses were superimposed. By repeating the transition process more than 400 times, an effective measuring time of at least 80 s for each void fraction value was achieved. The rapid change of the gas fraction pofiles and the gas fraction wave propagating through the column was measured.

Subsequent studies have identified many scenarios which can lead to reactivity excursions due to boron dilution. The comparative study, presented in this paper, deals with the so-called "restart of the first reactor coolant pump" scenario and its reactor-dynamic consequences for the both VVER reactor types - VVER-440 and VVER-1000.
The transient simulations have been performed using the three-dimensional core dynamics code DYN3D. The DYN3D modeling features, including recent developments, as well as the cross-section generation methodology, involved in these calculations, are described. The analyzed accident scenario is outlined together with the assumptions made. The results of core response in this boron dilution accident for both VVER reactors have been compared within ranges, determined by the two reactivity values of interest: the criticaly limit and the reactivity initiated accident (RIA) limit.

Die ungarische Versuchsanlage PMK-2 ist ein im Volumenmaßstab 1:2070 skaliertes Modell einer Reaktoranlage vom Typ WWER-440. Das Experiment „1%-Leck im kalten Strang" ist die Wiederholung eines Experiments von 1990 mit erweiterter
Instrumentierung - insbesondere Nadelsonden aus dem FZ Rossendorf. Das Leck befindet sich am oberen Teil des Ringspalts und hat einen Durchmesser von 1 mm. Für das Experiment wird angenommen, daß zur Notkühlung nur das Hochdrucknotkühlsystem (HPIS) verfügbar ist. Im Forschungszentrum Rossendorf wurden Nachrechnungen zu dem vorgestellten Experiment mit dem Code ATHLET Mod1.1 Cycle A durchgeführt. Wie der Vergleich von Rechnung und Experiment zeigt, werden alle Phänomene des Experiments in der Rechnung gut wiedergegeben. Insbesondere konnten die beobachteten Instabilitäten im Naturumlauf sehr gut modelliert werden.

The existence of Main Isolating Valves (MIV) in the hot leg and the cold leg of each primary circuit loop is a special feature of WWER­440 type reactors. MIV's availability permits the disconnection of any loop during the work of all others, for example, in the case of leaks. The connection of a previous disconnected loop is a potential way for inducing a boron dilution accident, when infringements of rules and failure of technical systems occur. By combining the use of the codes SiTAP and DYN3D, more realistic boundary conditions were obtained than in previous investigations, were a plug of water with diluted boron concentration was supposed to travel through the core while keeping the other boundary conditions constant.

The considered test was a break on the upper plenum with different modes of emergency core cooling. The reference case was the non-availability of emergency cooling. Injecting the emergency coolant into the cold leg, no increasing of rod cladding temperatures was observed, but natural circulation instabilities occurred. Injecting the cooling into the hot leg, the cooling situation was getting worse. Due to the injected cold emergency coolant, the fluid density in the discharge volume was enhanced and the break mass flow increased. The observed events in the test were reproduced by the code with good agreement

Die Entwicklung supramolekularer Rezeptoren zur selektiven Komplexbildung von Anionen, Kationen und Neutralmolekülen ist von großem Interesse im Hinblick auf Anwendungen in der Analytik, Medizin und Technik. Die besondere Rolle der supramolekularen Chemie resultiert dabei aus der grundlegenden Überlegung, in biologischen Systemen genutzte Wirksysteme einer hochselektiven Erkennung und Bindung von Spezies sowie ihres Transportes mit Hilfe komplexer organisierter molekularer Funktionseinheiten auf die Lösung praxisrelevanter Probleme zu übertragen.
Möglichkeiten der selektiven Bindung und des Phasentransfers werden am Beispiel von ditopen Guanidiniumverbindungen für Oxoanionen sowie makrobi- bzw. -tricyclischer Carbonsäuren für Erdalkali-Ionen diskutiert.

This Paper proposes a set of 3-dimensional benchmark rod ejection problems for a VVER reactor, based on the wellknown NEACRP PWR rod-ejection problems defined by Siemens/KWU. Predictions for these benchmarks deriving using three hexagonal-z nodal transient codes, the PANTER code of Nuclear Electric, the HEXTIME code of Siemens/KWU and the DYN3D code of FZ-Rossendorf are presented and compared.

The paper presented concerns a comparative analysis of the third three­dimensional dynamic benchmark of AER by using different options of the DYN3D code developed in the RC Rossendorf. The benchmark was defined as a control rod ejection accident in a VVER­440 core without reactor scram including the whole core thermal hydraulics. For the basic analysis with the help of DYN3D, some modifications of the code were made to meet the specifications of the benchmark (thermal properties of fuel and cladding, heat transfer in the gas gap, DNBR­correlation, hydrau lic model) as close as possible (case A). An additional analysis was carried out by using the standard version of DYN3D without any modifications. The conditions of the benchmark were approa ched only via input data (case B). In the first part of the paper, a description of the thermohy draulic model of DYN3D is given. Specific aspects concerning the modelling of the benchmark conditions are outlined. In the second part, a c!
omparative analysis of the results obtained by different DYN3D options is given. In addition to the demonstration of the applicability of the DYN3D code for solving the problem without any modifications, the goal of the investigations was to get a feeling for the sensitivity of the results with respect to ther mohydraulic modelling. The global parameters like reactivity, nuclear power, power to coolant and total mass flow rate were obtained with good agreement between the cases A and B. However, differences occur in detailled parameters, especially for the hot channel, where heat transfer crisis occurs.

The coupling of advanced thermohydraulic codes with 3-dimensional neutron kinetic codes corresponds to the effort to replace conservative estimations by best estimate calculations. In the past advanced thermohydraulic codes and detailed core models were devoloped in most cases separatly. But it is often nesessary to consider the feedback between the coolant circuits and space dependent neutron kinetics. Examples for such cases are boron dilution accidents or inadverdant connection of a loop filled with cold water.
ATHLET is an advanced thermohydraulic code, developed by the German Gesellschaft fr Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS). Up to now only point kinetics and 1-dimensional neutron kinetics have been included. The DYN3D code, developed in the Research Centre Rossendorf (FZR) for the improvement of the simulation of reactivity initiated accidents in VVER-type reactors comprises 3- dimensional neutron kinetics, models for the thermohydraulics of the core including heat transfer from the fuel to the coolant, a fuel rod behavior model and a mixing model for the lower plenum.

The paper presents the results of small-break loss-of-coolant tests carried out at the test facility ISB-VVER located in Elektrogorsk, Russia. Presently, it is the only operating integral model of the Sovjet type VVER-1000 reactor suitable for thermalhydraulic investigations. A small leak in the upper plenum of the reactor vessel was chosen for the test scenario. Different emergency core cooling (ECC) injection modes were applied and compared. It was show that the best results of ECC injection are obtained by a combined injection into both hot and cold leg. It is possible to maintain a reliable core cooling even without an injection by the safety injection tanks, which were assumed to be not available. The tests provided data suitable for code verification. Applied needle shaped void fraction probes delivered detailed information about the two-phase flow in the primary circuit.

Es wird die Struktur eines technischen Computersystems zur betrieblichen Überwachung der Zuverlässigkeit und Sicherheit ukrainischer KKW durch die staatlichen Aufsichtsbehörden beschrieben. Nach Auffassung der Autoren führt der Aufbau eines solchen Überwachungssystems, unabhängig von den Kontrollsystemen des Betreibers, zu einer schnellen, signifikanten und kostengünstigen Sicherheitserhöhung beim Betrieb der Reaktoranlagen vom Typ WWER-1000.

Es wird ein Ultraschall-Laufzeit-Bewegungsverfahren vorgestellt, mit dem der duktile Rißfortschritt in 3-Punkt-Biegeproben kleiner Abmessungen gemessen werden kann. Das Verfahren erfüllt die Genauigkeitsanforderungen nach DIN 54120 und arbeitet quasikontinuierlich.

The 4-[¹⁸F]fluorobenzoyl compounds of Neurotensin(8-13) (NT(8-13)) as well as [Arg⁸pseudo(CH₂NH)Arg⁹]NT(8-13) were obtained by reaction of N-succinimidyl 4-[¹⁸F]fluorobenzoate ([¹⁸F]SFB) with these peptides in aqueous buffered solutions at pH 8.3 in r.c.y. of up to 43 % (related to [¹⁸F]SFB; decay-corrected) within 80 min (including HPLC purification). This is the first example for the specific radiolabelling of the alpha-amino group at the N-terminal arginine unit of peptides using [¹⁸F]SFB.

Bei Druckentlastungsexperimenten mit Ethanol an einem Versuchsreaktor von 105 l Volumeninhalt der Hoechst AG wurden nadelförmige Leitfähigkeitssonden zur Messung von Dampfgehalt, Gasgeschwindigkeit und Blasengröße eingesetzt. Es wurden insgesamt 5 Sonden im oberen Bereich des Reaktors auf verschiedenen Höhenmarken eingebaut. Hiervon dienten 4 Einpunktsonden ausschließlich der Dampfgehaltsmessung. Die Spitze der Sonde steht in Kontakt mit der elektrisch leitenden Flüssigkeit. Durch Versorgung mit einer kleinen Gleichspannung wird ein Strom hervorgerufen, der unterbrochen wird, wenn die Sondenspitze sich in einer Dampfblase befindet. Der Gasgehalt des zweiphasigen Gemisches wird aus der Integration der Kontaktzeit mit der Gasphase bezogen auf die gesamte Meßzeit berechnet. Bei einer weiteren Sonde handelte es sich um eine Zweipunktsonde, die zusätzlich die Bestimmung der Geschwindigkeit der Dampfblasen erlaubt. Dies geschieht durch Auswertung der Zeit, die zwischen dem Eintreffen der Blasen an deren vorderer Elektrode und dem Umschließen der hinteren Elektrode verstreicht. Mit dem bekannten axialen Abstand der zwei Elektroden wird hieraus die Geschwindigkeit berechnet. Durch Kombination der Geschwindigkeitsinformation mit der Dauer des Blasenkontakts wurden Blasengrößen bestimmt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß Leitfähigkeitssonden trotz des geringen elektrischen Leitwerts von Ethanol benutzt werden können. Es wurden insgesamt 4 Versuche mit einem Anfangsdruck von maximal 0,98 MPa durchgeführt. Bei der Druckentlastung kam es zum Aufsieden des Behälterinhalts und zum Auftreten eines Zweiphasengemischs. Durch das Anwachsen des Dampfgehalts an der Entlastungsöffnung kommt es zur Beschleunigung des Druckabbaus, woraufhin der Dampfgehalt an den Sondenpositionen zunimmt. Die Sonden registrieren schließlich infolge der Verringerung des Behälterinhalts nacheinander den Durchgang Gemischspiegels. Mit Hilfe der Zweipunktsonde wurden Blasengrößen bestimmt. Durch den zufälligen Charakter der Berührung Blase - Sonde werden Sehnenlängen der Blasen und damit deren Größe bestimmt. Die Meßwerte lassen den Schluß zu, daß eine heterogene Blasenströmung mit einem hohen Anteil von Großblasen vorgelegen hat. Mit dem eindimensionalen Rechenmodell BLDN konnten nach Implementierung eines Stoffdatensatzes für Ethanol die gemessenen Gasgehaltsverläufe gut reproduziert werden.

Das Programm BLDN (BLow-DowN) basiert auf einem eindimensionalen Strömungsmodell zur Beschreibung der axialen Dampfgehaltsverteilung in einem stehenden zylindrischen Druckbehälter bei einem Abblasevorgang unter Beschränkung auf eine Komponente. Zur Beschreibung der axialen Dampfgehaltsverteilung werden für Dampf und Flüssigkeit die gemeinsamen Massen- und Energieerhaltungsgleichungen gelöst. Es wird von thermodynamischem Gleichgewicht ausgegangen. Die zum Abschluß des Systems notwendige Phasendriftbeziehung wird in Form einer Phasendifferenzgeschwindigkeit als Funktion vom Dampfgehalt und den Stoffwerten verwendet. Mit Hilfe dieser Beziehung werden die Geschwindigkeiten beider Phasen gekoppelt. Der Impuls des Strömungsmediums wird vernachlässigt. Die Impulsgleichungen bleiben deshalb unberücksichtigt. Im Druckgefäß wird lediglich ein hydrostatisches Druckprofil berechnet, mit dessen Hilfe die Meßwerte von Differenzdruckgebern simuliert werden können. Die Anwendbarkeit des Modells ist wegen der fehlenden Impulsgleichungen auf kleine Lecks beschränkt. Der trägheitsbedingte Druckimpuls, der auf die Differenzdruckgeber in den ersten Zehntelsekunden des Aufsiedens wirkt, wird nicht nachgebildet. Die Verbindung zwischen Leckmassenstrom und Druckabfallgeschwindigkeit wird durch integrale Massen- und Energiebilanzen hergestellt, die über den gesamten Behälter gebildet werden. Je nach Option wird der Druckabfall aus dem Leckmassenstrom (BLDN) oder umgekehrt (BLDN_PV) berechnet. Der Wärmestrom, der von den Behälterwänden infolge des Absinkens der Fluidtemperatur während des Druckentlastungsvorgangs ausgeht, wird mit einer Wärmeübergangszahl für gesättigtes Sieden berechnet. Die momentane Temperatur an der Behälterinnenwand wird durch analytische Lösung der Wärmeleitungsgleichung in der Wand bestimmt. Der Verlauf des Massenhöhenstands (collapsed level) wird durch Integration des Leckmassenstroms bestimmt. Der Gemischspiegel wird unter Vorgabe des jeweiligen Massenhöhenstands aus der axialen Dampfgehaltsverteilung ermittelt. Bei der Berechnung des Dampfgehalts am Leckort wird die Lage des Gemischspiegels und die Höhe der Sprudelschicht (Schaumzone) berücksichtigt. Letztere bildet sich am Übergang von der Blasenströmung zum Dampfraum heraus.